Iran - Tips
Iran
Bureau of Near Eastern
Affairs
June
2007
Background Note:
Iran
Tourists visit ruins at
Persepolis,
near Shiraz, Iran, May 22, 2002.
[©
AP
Images]
Flag of Iran is three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white,
and red;
the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word
Allah in the shape
of a tulip, a symbol of martyrdom) in red is
centered in the white band;
ALLAH AKBAR (God
is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along
the
bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red
band.
PROFILE
OFFICIAL
NAME:
Islamic Republic of
Iran
Geography
Area: 1.6 million sq. km. (636,295 sq. mi., slightly larger than
Alaska).
Arable land: 9.78% of the
country.
Cities: Capital--Tehran. Other cities--Isfahan, Tabriz, Mashhad,
Shiraz,
Yazd,
Qom.
Terrain: Desert and
mountains.
Climate: Semiarid; subtropical along the Caspian
coast.
People
Nationality: Noun and
adjective--Iranian(s).
Population (2007): 65.4
million.
Population growth rate (2007 est.):
0.663%.
Ethnic groups: Persians 51%, Azeri 24%, Gilaki and Mazandarani 8%,
Kurd 7%,
Arab 3%, Lur 2%, Baloch 2%, Turkmen 2%, other
1%.
Religions: Shi'a Muslim 89%; Sunni Muslim 9%; Zoroastrian, Jewish,
Christian,
and Baha'i
2%.
Languages: Persian and Persian dialects 58%, Turkic languages
(besides
Turkish) 26%, Kurdish
9%, Luri 2%, Balochi 1%, Arabic 1%, Turkish 1%, other
2%.
Education: Literacy (total population age 15 and over who can read
and write,
2003)--79% (male: 86%, female:
73%).
Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate--38.2 deaths/1,000 live
births.
Life expectancy at birth (2007)--total
population: 70.56
yrs.
Government
Type: Islamic
republic.
Constitution: Ratified in December 1979, revised
1989.
Branches: Executive--Supreme Leader (head of state), president (head
of
government), Council of Ministers,
Assembly of Experts, Expediency Council,
Council of Guardians.
Legislative--290-member Majles (National Assembly, or
Islamic
Consultative Assembly). Judicial--Supreme
Court.
Political parties: A number of reform-minded groups achieved
considerable
success during elections to the sixth
Majles in early 2000. However, many
reformist
candidates, including sitting members of the Majles,
were
disqualified from participation in the February 2004 elections. As a result,
a new conservative group, the Builders of Islamic Iran, won a
majority of the
seats and took a leading position in the seventh
Majles.
Administrative subdivisions: 30
provinces.
Suffrage: Universal suffrage. The government is debating raising the
voting
age from 15 to
18.
Economy
GDP (purchasing power parity, 2006 est.): $599.2
billion.
GDP (official exchange rate, 2006 est.): $193.5
billion.
GDP real growth rate (2007 est.):
4.6%.
GDP composition by sector (2006): Agriculture 11.2%, industry 41.7%,
services
47.1%.
Per capita income (2006 est.):
$8,700.
Work force: 24.36
million.
Work force - by occupation (2001 est.): Agriculture 30%, industry
25%,
services
45%.
Unemployment rate (2007 est.):
20%.
Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper,
iron ore,
lead manganese, zinc,
sulfur.
Agriculture: Principal products--wheat, rice, other grains, sugar
beets,
fruits, nuts, cotton, dairy products,
wool, caviar. Note: Iran is not
self-sufficient in terms of
food.
Industry: Types--petroleum, petrochemicals, textiles, cement and
building
materials, food processing (particularly
sugar refining and vegetable oil
production), metal
fabricating (particularly steel and copper), armaments.
Trade (2007 est.): Exports--$56.9 billion: petroleum 80%, chemical
and
petrochemical products,
carpets, fruits, nuts. Major export partners (2006):
Japan (17.3%),
China (11.4%), Italy (6.2%), South Korea (5.2%), South Africa
(5.5%),
Turkey (5.7%), Netherlands (4.6%), France (4.1%), Taiwan
(4.1%).
Imports--$48.1 billion: industrial
raw materials and intermediate goods,
capital
goods, foodstuffs and other consumer goods, technical
services,
military supplies. Major
import partners: Germany (14.2%), U.A.E. (6.7%),
China (8.3%), Italy (7.5%), France (6.2%), South Korea (5.4%), Russia
(4.9%).
PEOPLE
Iran is a pluralistic society. Persians are the largest predominant
ethnic
and cultural group in this country, though many
are actually of mixed
ancestry. The population of the country has important Turkic elements (e.g.,
Azeris) and Arabs predominate in the southwest. In addition, Iranian
citizens
include Kurds, Balochi, Bakhtyari, Lurs, and other smaller
minorities, such
as Armenians, Assyrians, Jews, and Brahuis (or
Brohi).
The 1979 Islamic revolution and the 1980-88 war with Iraq transformed
Iran's
class structure politically, socially, and economically.
During this period,
Shia clerics took a more dominant position in
politics and nearly all aspects
of Iranian life, both urban and rural.
After the fall of the Pahlavi regime
in 1979, much of the urban
upper class of prominent
merchants,
industrialists, and professionals, favored by the former monarch, the
shah,
lost standing and influence to the senior clergy and
their supporters. Bazaar
merchants, who were allied with the clergy
against the Pahlavi shahs, also
have gained political and
economic power since the revolution. The urban
working class has enjoyed somewhat enhanced status and economic
mobility,
spurred in part by opportunities provided
by revolutionary organizations and
the government bureaucracy. Though
the number of clergy holding senior
positions in the parliament and elsewhere in government has declined
since
the 1979 revolution, Iran has nevertheless
witnessed the rise of
a
post-revolutionary elite among lay people who are strongly committed to
the
preservation of the Islamic
Republic.
Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam,
the
official state religion, and about
9% belong to the Sunni branch, which
predominates in neighboring Muslim countries. Non-Muslim minorities
include
Zoroastrians, Jews, Baha'is, and
Christians.
HISTORY
The ancient nation of Iran, historically known to the West as Persia
and once
a major empire in its own right, has been overrun frequently
and has had its
territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded
by Arabs, Seljuk Turks,
Mongols, and others--and often caught
up in the affairs of
larger
powers--Iran has always reasserted its national identity and has
developed as
a distinct political and cultural
entity.
Archeological findings indicate human activity in Iran during the
middle
Paleolithic era, about 100,000 years
ago. The sixth millennium B.C. saw a
fairly
sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers.
Many dynasties have ruled Iran, starting with the Achaemenid (559-330
B.C.)
founded by Cyrus the Great. After the conquest of Persia
by Alexander the
Great and the Hellenistic period
(300-250 B.C.) came the Parthian (250
B.C.-226 A.D.) and the Sassanian (226-651)
dynasties.
The seventh century Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran was followed with
invasions
by the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols. Iran underwent
something of a revival
under the Safavid dynasty
(1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was
Shah Abbas, who
expelled the Uzbeks and Ottomans from Persia. The conqueror
Nadir Shah and his successors were followed by the Zand dynasty, founded
by
Karim Khan, and later the Qajar (1795-1925) and the Pahlavi
dynasties
(1925-1979).
Modern Iranian history began with a nationalist uprising against the
Shah in
1905 and the establishment of a limited constitutional
monarchy in 1906. The
discovery of oil in 1908 would later become a
key factor in Iranian history
and
development.
In 1921, Reza Khan, an Iranian officer of the Persian Cossack
Brigade, seized
control of the government. In 1925, having ousted the
Qajar dynasty, he made
himself Shah and established the Pahlavi
dynasty, ruling as Reza Shah for
almost 16
years.
Under Reza Shah's reign, Iran began to modernize and to secularize,
and the
central government reasserted its authority over the
tribes and provinces.
During World War Two the Allies
feared the monarch close relations with Nazi
Germany. In September
1941, following the occupation of western Iran by the
Soviet
Union and the United Kingdom, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate. His
son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became Shah and would rule until
1979.
During World War Two, Iran had been a vital link in the Allied supply
line
for lend-lease supplies to the Soviet Union. After
the war, Soviet troops
stationed in northwestern
Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed
revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist regimes
in the
northern regions of Azerbaijan and Kurdistan.
These ended in 1946. The
Azerbaijani revolt crumbled after U.S. and United Nations (UN)
pressure
forced a Soviet withdrawal.
Iranian forces also suppressed the Kurdish
uprising.
In 1951, the government of nationalist Prime Minister Mohammed
Mossadeq
(sometimes spelled Mossadegh)
nationalized the British-owned Anglo-Iranian
Oil Company
(AIOC). The Shah fled to Rome from Iran before the U.S.-backed
coup against Mossadeq in August 1953, during which pro-Shah army
forces
arrested the Prime Minister. The
Shah returned soon thereafter. A few years
later, AIOC was
renamed British Petroleum, better known today as
BP.
In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and
administrative
reforms that became known as
the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this
program was
land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an
unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves,
the
third-largest in the world. However, his autocratic method of rule
and
pro-western policies
alienated large sectors of the population, including the
Shia
clergy.
In 1978, domestic turmoil swept the country as a result of religious
and
political opposition to the Shah's rule,
including abuses committed by SAVAK,
the hated internal security and
intelligence service. In January 1979, the
Shah left
Iran; he died abroad several years
after.
On February 1, 1979, exiled religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini
returned from France, to assume
control of the revolution and established
himself
as Supreme Leader of a new, theocratic republic guided by
Islamic
principles. Following Khomeini's death on
June 3, 1989, the Assembly of
Experts
chose the outgoing president of the republic, Ali Khamenei, to be his
successor as Supreme Leader in what proved to be a smooth
transition.
In August 1989, Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani, the speaker of the Majles,
was
elected President by an overwhelming
majority. He was re-elected June 1993,
with a more modest
majority. Some Western observers attributed the reduced
voter turnout to disenchantment with the deteriorating economy.
An
overwhelming majority of Iranians elected Mohammad Khatami-Ardakani
as
President in August 1997,
hoping he would usher in a new era of freedom and
reform.
Khatami had modest successes in broadening the participation
of
Iranians in government and politics
through initiating popular elections for
local government councils
and encouraging the development of civil society.
Many
liberal-minded Iranians were disappointed that Khatami did not support
student protesters in 1999, but he was nevertheless re-elected in
June 2001.
In February 2004 flawed elections were held for the Seventh Majles in
which
many reformists were prohibited from contesting their
seats, meaning that a
much more conservative group of
parliamentarians easily retook control of the
Majles in May 2004. The
next Majles elections are currently slated to take
place
on March 14,
2008.
None of the seven candidates in the presidential vote on June 17,
2005
received a majority,
resulting in a two-candidate runoff between Tehran mayor
Mahmud
Ahmadi-Nejad and former President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani on June 24.
Ahmadi-Nejad, winning in the second round with almost 62% of the
vote
according to Iranian
Government figures, took office in August 2005. The next
presidential
elections are scheduled for
2009.
GOVERNMENT
The December 1979 Iranian constitution defines the political,
economic, and
social order of the Islamic republic. The
document establishes Shi'a Islam of
the Twelver (Jaafari) sect as
Iran's official religion. Sunni
Islam,
Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Christianity are the only other recognized,
legal
minority religions. The country is governed by secular and
religious leaders
through governing bodies, whose duties often
overlap.
The Supreme Leader holds power for life unless removed by the
Assembly of
Experts. He has final say on all
domestic, foreign, and security policies for
Iran, though he
establishes and supervises those policies in consultation
with the Expediency Council. The Leader is the final arbiter on
all
differences
or disputes among the various branches of government. He appoints
officials to key positions including the head of judiciary and the 12
members
of the Guardian Council (six directly, six indirectly). He has
power to
remove the president and is
commander-in-chief of the armed
forces.
The constitution stipulates that the Assembly of Experts, which
currently
consists of the 86 popularly-elected
clerics elected to 8-year terms, chooses
the Supreme Leader based on
jurisprudent qualifications and commitment to the
principles of the
revolution. The Assembly of Experts reviews his performance
periodically and has the power to depose and replace him.
Pragmatic
conservative candidates generally polled better than their
hardline
conservative opponents during the December 15, 2006 elections to the
Assembly
of Experts. (Turnout for this vote, which coincided with
municipal council
elections, was quite high, topping
60%.) Citizens will not vote
for
representatives to the Assembly again until
2014.
The Council of Guardians consists of 12 persons. The Supreme Leader
appoints
the six religious members of the Council of Guardians while
the Iranian
parliament, the Majles,
selects the six lay members from
candidates
recommended by the judiciary, which is in turn selected by the
Supreme
Leader. The non-clerics
play a role only in determining whether legislation
before the
Majles conforms to Iran's constitution. The religious members, on
the
other hand, take part in all deliberations, considering all bills
for
conformity to Islamic principles. The Council
of Guardians can veto any law.
This body also certifies the
competence of candidates for the presidency, the
Assembly of Experts,
and the
Majles.
The president of the Islamic Republic of Iran is elected by
universal
suffrage to a
4-year term. The president supervises the affairs of
the
executive branch, appointing
and supervising the Council of
Ministers
(members of the
cabinet), coordinating government decisions, and selecting
government policies to be placed before the National
Assembly.
The Majles, or National Assembly, consists of 290 members elected to
4-year
terms. The members of the legislature are elected by
direct and secret ballot
from among the candidates approved by the
Council of
Guardians.
In 1988, Ayatollah Khomeini created the Council for Expediency,
which
resolves legislative
issues on which the Majles and the Council of Guardians
fail to reach
an agreement. Since 1989, it has been used to advise
the
national religious leader on
matters of national policy as well. It is
composed of the president, the speaker of the Majles, the judiciary
chief,
the clerical members of the Council of Guardians,
and other members appointed
by the Supreme Leader for 3-year terms.
Cabinet members and Majles committee
chairs also serve as temporary
members when issues under their jurisdictions
are considered. In
2005, it was announced that the Expediency Council, which
now has
over 40 members, would have responsibility for general supervision of
the system, though that has not resulted in any noticeable change in
this
institution's day-to-day authority or
operations.
Judicial authority is constitutionally vested in the Supreme Court
and the
four-member High Council of the Judiciary; these
are two separate groups with
overlapping responsibilities and have one
head. Together, they
are
responsible for supervising the enforcement of all laws and for establishing
judicial and legal
policies.
Iran has two military forces. The national military is charged with
defending
Iran's borders, while the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
(IRGC) is charged
mainly with maintaining internal
security.
Iran has 30 provinces managed by an appointed governor general. The
provinces
are further divided into counties, districts, and villages.
Sixty percent of
eligible voters took part in the first ever
municipal and local council
elections
in 1999, though a lower percentage went to the polls in the second
round in 2003. Turnout during the December 15, 2006 elections, during
which
citizens also elected Assembly of Expert representatives,
was over 60%. The
local councils select
mayors.
Principal Government
Officials
Leader of the Islamic Revolution--Ali
Hosseini-Khamenei
President--Mahmud
Ahmadi-Nejad
First Vice President--Parviz
Davudi
Foreign Minister--Manouchehr
Mottaki
Ambassador to the United Nations--Mohammad Javad
Zarif
POLITICAL
CONDITIONS
Iran's post-revolution difficulties have included an 8-year war with
Iraq,
internal political struggles and unrest, and
economic disorder. The early
days of the regime
were characterized by severe human rights violations and
political turmoil, including the seizure of the U.S. Embassy compound and
its
occupants on 4 November 1979, by Iranian student militants.
Iranian
authorities released the 52 hostages only after 444 days of
captivity.
By mid-1982, the clergy had won a succession of post-Revolution
power
struggles that
eliminated first the center of the political spectrum and then
the
leftists, including the communist Tudeh party and the
cult-like
Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO). Assassinations, throwing acid
in
the faces of women who refused to wear the veil, and other acts of
violence
punctuated this period. There has been some moderation
of excesses since the
early days of the revolution, and the country
experienced a partial "thaw" in
terms of political and social freedoms
during the tenure of former president
Khatami, but serious problems
remained. The administration of President
Ahmadi-Nejad has witnessed a crackdown on Iranian civil society,
continued
human rights violations, and worsening
constraints on press freedom and civil
liberties.
The Islamic Republican Party (IRP) was Iran's sole political party
until its
dissolution in 1987. Iran now has a variety of groups
engaged in political
activity; some are oriented along
ideological lines or based on an identity
group, others are
more akin to professional political parties seeking members
and
recommending candidates for office. Some have been active participants
in
the Revolution's political life while others reject the state.
Conservatives
consistently thwarted the efforts of reformists during
the Khatami era and
have consolidated their control on
power since the flawed elections for the
seventh Majles in 2004
and president Ahmadi-Nejad's victory in
2005.
The Iranian Government has faced armed opposition from a number of
groups,
including the MEK (which the U.S. Government
added to its list of Foreign
Terrorist
Organizations in 1999), the People's Fedayeen, and the
Kurdish
Democratic Party of Iran
(KDPI).
ECONOMY
Pre-revolutionary Iran's economic development was rapid.
Traditionally an
agricultural society, by the 1970s
Iran had achieved
significant
industrialization and economic modernization. However, the pace of
growth had
slowed dramatically by 1978, just before the Islamic
revolution. Since the
fall of the shah, economic recovery
has proven elusive thanks to
a
combination of factors, including fluctuations in the global energy
market.
Economic activity was severely disrupted additionally
by years of upheaval
and uncertainty surrounding the
revolution and the introduction of statist
economic
policies. These conditions were worsened by the war with Iraq and
the decline in world oil prices beginning in late 1985. After the war
with
Iraq ended, the situation began to improve: Iran's
GDP grew for two years
running, partly from an oil
windfall in 1990, and there was a substantial
increase in imports. However, Iran had suffered a brain drain throughout the
previous decade and wartime policies had resulted in a demographic
explosion.
A decrease in oil revenues in 1991 and growing external debt
dampened
optimism for
recovery. In March 1989, the government instituted a new 5-year
plan
for economic development, which loosened state control and allowed Iran
to seek greater latitude in accessing foreign capital. Mismanagement
and
inefficient bureaucracy, as well as
political and ideological infighting,
hampered the
formulation and execution of a consolidated economic policy, and
the
Iran fell short of the plan's goals while economic inequality
was
aggravated. Today,
Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state
ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture,
and
small-scale private trading
and service ventures. Former President Khatami
followed
the market reform plans of his predecessor, President Rafsanjani,
and indicated that he would pursue diversification of Iran's
oil-reliant
economy, although he made little
progress toward that goal. High inflation
and expansive
public transfer programs, as well as
powerful
economic-political vested interests created obstacles for rapid
reform.
During the 2005 election campaign, President Ahmadi-Nejad promised
to
redistribute oil
revenues to the impoverished, fund large infrastructure
projects, and privatize Iranian state enterprises. He has been
criticized
within Iran for not carrying through on
many of his promises.
While
establishment of the Imam Reza fund for cheap loans to youth has
been
popular, a law
increasing the minimum was revoked because of the huge strain
on
employers. The "Shares of Justice" program--distributing shares
of
state-owned enterprises
to the poor--faces a number of potential problems.
Unemployment was estimated to be 20% for 2007, according to the
International
Monetary Fund. Unemployment, a major problem even before
the revolution, has
many causes, including population growth, high
minimum wage level and other
restrictive labor policies.
Farmers and peasants enjoyed a psychological
boost from the attention given them by the Islamic regime but hardly
appear
to be better off in economic terms. The government has
made progress on rural
development, including electrification and road
building, but Iran still
faces inefficiencies
related to agricultural land usage which are politically
difficult to
reconcile. Agriculture also has suffered from shortages
of
capital, raw materials, and
equipment, problems dating back to the 1980-1988
war with Iraq. (See
Foreign Relations
below.)
Although Islam guarantees the right to private ownership, banks and
some
industries--including the petroleum,
transportation, utilities, and mining
sectors--were
nationalized after the revolution under
Marxist-influenced
economic policies.
Starting under President Rafsanjani, Iran has pursued some
privatization through its nascent equities markets. However, the
industrial
sector remains plagued by low labor productivity and
shortages of raw
materials
and spare parts, and is uncompetitive against foreign
imports.
Increases in the price of oil starting in 2003 have increased state
revenue
enormously and permitted a much larger degree of
spending on social programs
than previously anticipated. However,
this has not eased economic hardships
such as high unemployment
and inflation. The proportion of the economy
devoted to the development of weapons of mass destruction and
military
spending overall remains
a contentious issue with leading Western nations.
Earnings from Iranian oil exports, projected at $57-$87 billion
for
2007-2008,
are placed into the Oil Stabilization Fund (OSF),
originally
designed as a Treasury
safety net if oil prices dropped below $20/barrel. In
practice, the
government has drawn upon the OSF to cover overexpenditures.
Iran relies on oil for 80% of its export revenue, and 40% of total
revenues.
(Note: Iran's refining capacity is limited, and Tehran is a
net gasoline
importer, spending $2.6 billion
for foreign gas in
2005.)
FOREIGN
RELATIONS
Khomeini's revolutionary regime initiated sharp changes from the
foreign
policy pursued by the Shah,
particularly in reversing the
country's
orientation toward the West. In the Middle East, Iran's only significant
ally
has been Syria, but Iran has made strides in improving relations
with its
Gulf neighbors, particularly Saudi
Arabia.
Iran's foreign relations are based on sometimes competing objectives.
Iran's
pragmatic foreign policy goals include, not surprisingly,
protecting itself
from external threats and building trade
ties. Iran has additionally been
accused, however,
of trying to export its fundamentalist revolution to other
countries,
sometimes supporting terrorist organizations, and its vehement
anti-U.S. and anti-Israel stances are well-known. Senior Iranian
officials
directed Hezbollah to carry out the bombing of
the Asociación Mutual
Israelita Argentina (AMIA, the Argentine Israelite Mutual
Association)
building in Buenos
Aires on July 18, 1994, killing 85 people and wounding
scores of others. Out of the eight individuals indicted by the
Government of
Argentina in October 2006, the Interpol Executive
Committee has recommended
the issuance of Red Notices
(international arrest warrants) against six: five
former or current
Iranian officials and one Lebanese Hezbollah
leader.
In September 1980, during the U.S. hostage crisis, Iraq invaded Iran
to take
control of the waterway between the two countries, the Shatt
al-Arab,
although the
conflict's underlying causes included each nation's overt desire
for
the overthrow of the other's government. Iran defended itself
and
demanded the withdrawal
of Iraqi troops from Iranian territory and the return
to the status
quo ante for the Shatt al-Arab as established under the 1975
Algiers Agreement signed by Iraq and Iran. Khomeini's government
turned down
an Iraqi cease-fire proposal in 1982, making a new demand
for Saddam
Hussein's
removal as well. After eight punishing years of war, in July 1988,
Iran at last agreed to UN Security Council Resolution 598 and the cease-fire
was implemented on August 20, 1988. Neither nation had made any real
gains in
the
war.
Iran's relations with many of its Arab neighbors have been strained
by
Iranian attempts to spread its
Islamic revolution, a strictly ideological
goal. In
1981, Iran supported a plot to overthrow the Bahrain Government. In
1983, Iran expressed support for Shi'ites who bombed Western embassies
in
Kuwait, and in 1987, Iranian pilgrims rioted
during the hajj (pilgrimage) in
Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Nations with
strong fundamentalist movements, such as
Egypt and
Algeria, also mistrust Iran. Iran backs Hezbollah (in
Lebanon),
Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and the
Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestine-General Command, all of
which are violently opposed to
the
Arab-Israeli
peace process. In contrast, while relations with west European
nations have been uneven, they have been driven primarily by pragmatic goals
of trade and security. Iran has accepted stronger commercial ties but
largely
declined to deliver on key European political concerns such as
human rights
and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) acquisition
efforts, particularly in
the nuclear field, where the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has
been
strongly critical of
Iran.
An IAEA report in November 2003 provided evidence that Iran, a
signatory to
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), had
concealed secret nuclear
activities for 18
years. Under international pressure, Iran signed
the
Additional Protocol to the
Safeguards Agreement on December 18,
2003,
agreeing to suspend
all uranium-enrichment and reprocessing
activities
voluntarily, as well
as cooperate fully with the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA)
in resolving questions regarding Iran's nuclear program. In
June 2004, the IAEA rebuked Iran for failing to fully cooperate with
an
inquiry into its nuclear activities,
and in November 2004, Iran agreed to
suspend most
of its uranium enrichment under a deal with the EU. That promise
did
not last, however, and since then concerns over Iran's nuclear
activities
have
increased.
On June 6, 2006, China, France, Germany, Russia, the United States,
and
United Kingdom offered Iran a
substantial package of economic cooperation and
assistance. Tehran,
however, was first required to come into compliance with
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) guidelines on its nuclear program,
suspending its uranium enrichment program. On July 31, the UN
Security
Council adopted
resolution 1696 on the Iranian nuclear question, requiring
Iran to suspend all activities related to enrichment and
reprocessing,
including research
and development, as demanded by the IAEA, or else face
possible sanctions. Tehran defied the UN Security Council (UNSC)
deadline of
August 31, leading to the passage of UNSC Resolution 1636
in December 2006
and, as Iran continued to balk,
Resolution 1747 in March
2007.
Iran sparked an international controversy when its forces seized and
held
hostage 15 British sailors and marines,
conducting routine anti-smuggling
operations in
Iraqi territorial waters under UN mandate, on March 23, 2007.
Tehran released the U.K. service members on April
6.
Iran maintains regular diplomatic and commercial relations with
Russia and
the former Soviet republics. Both Iran and
Russia believe they have important
national interests at stake in
developments in Central Asia and
the
Transcaucasus, particularly regarding energy resources from the Caspian Sea.
Russian and other sales of military equipment and technology to Iran
concern
Iran's neighbors and the United States. Washington is also
concerned about
Russian assistance in building at nuclear
facility at
Bushehr.
Iran spends about 3.3% of its GDP on its military. Iran's military
consists
of both a national military held over from the shah's
government and the
IRGC, each with its own
ground, naval and air braches. The Iran-Iraq war took
a heavy toll on
these military forces. Iran is trying to modernize
its
military, including ballistic
missile programs, and acquire weapons of mass
destruction; it
does not yet have, but continues to seek,
nuclear
capabilities.
U.S.-IRANIAN
RELATIONS
On November 4, 1979, militant Iranian students occupied the American
Embassy
in Tehran with the support of Ayatollah Khomeini. Fifty-two
Americans were
held hostage for 444 days. On April 7,
1980, the United States broke
diplomatic relations with Iran, and on April 24, 1981, the Swiss
Government
assumed representation of U.S. interests in Tehran.
Iranian interests in the
United States are represented by the
Government of Pakistan. The Islamic
Republic
of Iran does not have its own embassy in Washington, though it does
have a permanent mission to the United Nations in New York
City.
In accordance with the Algiers declaration of January 20, 1981, the
Iran-U.S.
Claims Tribunal (located in The Hague, Netherlands) was
established for the
purpose of handling claims of U.S.
nationals against Iran and of Iranian
nationals against the United States. U.S. contact with Iran through The
Hague
covers only legal
matters.
The U.S. Government, by Executive Orders issued by the President as
well as
by Congressional legislation, prohibits most trade with
Iran. Some sanctions
were imposed on Iran because Tehran is a state
sponsor of terrorism, others
because of the nuclear
proliferation issues, and still more for human rights
violations,
including infringement of religious freedom. The
commercial
relations that do exist
between the two countries consist mainly of Iranian
purchases
of food and medical products and U.S. imports of carpets and food.
Some sanctions were temporarily waived in the wake of the devastating
Bam
earthquake of December 2003. U.S. officials and
relief workers actively
assisted in
relief and reconstruction
efforts.
There are serious obstacles to improved relations between the two
countries.
As a state sponsor of terrorism, Iran remains an
impediment to international
efforts to locate and prosecute
terrorists. Recent attempts by Iran to form
loose alliances
with anti-U.S. governments in the Western Hemisphere, such as
the
Venezuelan Government, has further heightened concern about
Iran's
support for terrorism and
nuclear ambitions. Operation Iraqi Freedom removed
the Iranian
Government's greatest security threat, but officially
Iran
remained neutral about U.S.
policy, sometimes strongly condemning American
policies
and actions in Iraq. Iran has cultural ties to elements of
the
populations of both Iraq and
Afghanistan. It has made some
positive
contributions to stability in both countries, but other actions have had the
opposite effect. It remains to be seen whether Tehran will ultimately
be a
constructive force in the reconstruction of its two
neighbors or not.
The U.S. Government defines its areas of objectionable Iranian
behavior as
the
following:
*Iran's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons and
other weapons of mass
destruction;
*Its support for and involvement in international
terrorism;
*Its support for violent opposition to the Middle
East peace process, as
well as its
harmful activities particularly in Lebanon, as well as in
Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere in the
region;
and
*Its dismal human rights record and lack of respect
for its own people.
The United States has held discussions with Iranian representatives
on
particular issues of concern
over the years. U.S. and Iranian
envoys
cooperated
during operations to overthrow the Taliban in 2001 and during the
Bonn Conference in 2002 that established a broad-based government for
the
Afghan people under President Karzai. The
Secretary of State, her Iranian
counterpart, and
others met at talks on Iraq in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, on
May 3, 2007. The American and Iranian ambassadors to Iraq took part
in
face-to-face discussions in
Baghdad, with Iraqi officials in attendance, on
May 28, 2007.
The United States believes, however, that normal relations are
impossible until Iran's policies
change.
Nevertheless, the U.S. State Department is supporting efforts to
further the
cause of democracy in Iran. In fiscal year (FY) 2006, the
U.S. Congress
allocated approximately
$66 million to promote free media, personal freedom,
and a better
understanding of western values and culture. As part of these
efforts, the Department supports efforts to develop civil society in
Iran and
exchange programs that bring Iranian students, athletes,
professionals and
others to the United
States.
The Secretary of State has stated that Iranian agreement to abide by
UNSC
Resolutions 1696 and 1747, calling for Tehran
to suspend uranium enrichment
and comply with its international
nuclear obligations, could lead to the
direct
negotiations between American and Iranian government officials, not
only on Iran's nuclear case but on a wide range of
issues.
In May 2007, the Iranian Government charged and in some cases
imprisoned a
handful of innocent Iranian-American
scholars, civil society actors, and
journalists, accused by the regime of jeopardizing the security of the
state.
The international community, academic institutions,
non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and private citizens have joined the U.S. Government in
calling for the release of the detained dual nationals, as well as
Iranian
cooperation in the case of missing retired FBI
agent Robert Levinson, last
reported on Kish Island,
Iran, on March 8,
2007.
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS
INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program advises
Americans
traveling and residing abroad through Consular Information
Sheets, Public
Announcements, and Travel Warnings.
Consular Information Sheets exist for all
countries and include
information on entry and exit requirements, currency
regulations, health conditions, safety and security, crime,
political
disturbances, and
the addresses of the U.S. embassies and consulates abroad.
Public
Announcements are issued to disseminate information quickly
about
terrorist threats and other relatively
short-term conditions overseas that
pose significant
risks to the security of American travelers. Travel Warnings
are
issued when the State Department recommends that Americans avoid travel
to a certain country because the situation is dangerous or
unstable.
For the latest security information, Americans living and traveling
abroad
should regularly monitor the Department's Bureau
of Consular Affairs Internet
web site at
http://www.travel.state.gov, where the
current Worldwide Caution,
Public Announcements, and Travel Warnings
can be found. Consular Affairs
Publications,
which contain information on obtaining passports and planning a
safe
trip abroad, are also available at
http://www.travel.state.gov.
For
additional information on international
travel, see
http://www.usa.gov/
Citizen/Topics/Travel/International.shtml.
The Department of State encourages all U.S citizens who traveling or
residing
abroad to register via the State Department's travel
registration website or
at the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate
abroad. Registration will make your
presence and whereabouts known in
case it is necessary to contact you in an
emergency and will
enable you to receive up-to-date information on security
conditions.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may be
obtained
by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and
Canada or the regular
toll line 1-202-501-4444 for
callers outside the U.S. and
Canada.
The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S.
Department of
State's single, centralized public
contact center for U.S.
passport
information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778). Customer
service
representatives and operators for TDD/TTY
are available Monday-Friday, 7:00
a.m. to 12:00 midnight,
Eastern Time, excluding federal
holidays.
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S.
Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia.
A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP
(877-394-8747) and a web site at
http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm
give the
most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations
or requirements,
and advice on food and drinking water safety for
regions and countries. A
booklet entitled "Health
Information for International Travel"
(HHS
publication number CDC-95-8280) is available from the U.S.
Government
Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402, tel. (202)
512-1800.
Further Electronic
Information
Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at
http://
www.state.gov, the Department of State web
site provides timely, global
access to
official U.S. foreign policy information, including
Background
Notes and daily press briefings
along with the directory of key officers of
Foreign Service
posts and more. The Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC)
provides
security information and regional news that impact U.S. companies
working abroad through its website
http://www.osac.gov
Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance and
market
information offered by the federal
government and provides trade leads, free
export counseling, help
with the export process, and
more.
STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce,
provides
authoritative economic, business, and
international trade information from
the Federal
government. The site includes current and
historical
trade-related releases, international market research, trade
opportunities,
and country analysis and provides access to the
National Trade Data Bank.
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See http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/ for all
Background
notes
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Iran
