Afghanistan

Afghanistan                                                
                                   
  Afghan horsemen wind their way over a                                       
  mountain path on the outskirts of                                           
  Kabul, Afghanistan, June 5, 2005. [© AP Images]                                                                  
                                                                      
  The flag of Afghanistan is three equal vertical bands of black (hoist), red,
  and green, with a gold emblem centered on the red band; the emblem features a
  temple-like structure encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a  
  bold Islamic inscription above.                                             
                                                                       
  PROFILE                                                                     
                                                                       
  OFFICIAL NAME:                                                              
  Islamic Republic of Afghanistan                                             
                                                                       
  Geography                                                                   
  Area: 647,500 sq. km. (249,935 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than Texas.       
  Cities: Capital--Kabul (1,780,000; 1999/2000 UN est.). Other cities (1988 UN
  est.; current figures are probably significantly higher)--Kandahar (226,000);
  Herat (177,000); Mazar-e-Sharif (131,000); Jalalabad (58,000); Konduz       
  (57,000).                                                                   
  Terrain: Landlocked; mostly mountains and desert.                           
  Climate: Dry, with cold winters and hot summers.                            
                                                                       
  People                                                                      
  Nationality: Noun and adjective--Afghan(s).                                 
  Population: 31,056,997 (June 2006 est.). More than 3 million Afghans live   
  outside the country, mainly in Pakistan and Iran, although over three and a 
  half million have returned since the removal of the Taliban.                
  Annual population growth rate (2006 est.): 2.67%. This rate does not take   
  into consideration the recent war and its continuing impact.                
  Main ethnic groups: Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, Aimaq, Baluch,  
  Nuristani, Kizilbash.                                                       
  Religions: Sunni Muslim 80%, Shi'a Muslim 19%, other 1%.                    
  Main languages: Dari (Afghan Persian), Pashto.                              
  Education: Approximately 5 million children, of whom some 40% are girls,    
  enrolled in school during 2005. Literacy (2001 est.)--36% (male 51%, female 
  21%), but real figures may be lower given breakdown of education system and 
  flight of educated Afghans.                                                 
  Health: Infant mortality rate (2004 est.)--165.96 deaths/1,000 live births. 
  Life expectancy (2004 est.)--42.27 yrs. (male); 42.66 yrs. (female).        
                                                                       
  Government                                                                  
  Type: Islamic Republic.                                                     
  Independence: August 19, 1919.                                              
  Constitution: January 4, 2004.                                              
  Branches: Executive—president (chief of state). Legislative—bicameral       
  National Assembly (House of the People--249 seats, House of the Elders--102 
  seats). Judicial—Supreme Court, High Courts, and Appeals Courts.            
  Political subdivisions: 34 provinces.                                       
  Suffrage: Universal at 18 years.                                            
                                                                       
  Economy                                                                     
  GDP (2006 est.): $7.2 billion.                                              
  GDP growth (2006 est.): 13.8%.                                              
  GDP per capita (2006 est.): $231.83.                                        
  Natural resources: Natural gas, oil, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, 
  sulfur, lead, zinc, iron, salt, precious and semiprecious stones.           
  Agriculture (estimated 52% of GDP): Products--wheat, corn, barley, rice,    
  cotton, fruit, nuts, karakul pelts, wool, and mutton.                       
  Industry (estimated 26% of GDP): Types--small-scale production for domestic 
  use of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; hand-woven 
  carpets for export; natural gas, precious and semiprecious gemstones.       
  Services (estimated 22% of GDP): Transport, retail, and telecommunications. 
  Trade (2002-03 est.): Exports--$100 million (does not include opium): fruits
  and nuts, hand-woven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and   
  semiprecious gems. Major markets--Central Asian republics, United States,   
  Pakistan, India. Imports--$2.3 billion: food, petroleum products, machinery,
  and consumer goods. Major suppliers--Central Asian republics, Pakistan,     
  United States, India.                                                       
  Currency: The currency is the afghani, which was reintroduced as            
  Afghanistan's new currency in January 2003. At present, $1 U.S. equals      
  approximately 49 afghanis.                                                  
                                                                       
  PEOPLE                                                                      
  Afghanistan's ethnically and linguistically mixed population reflects its   
  location astride historic trade and invasion routes leading from Central Asia
  into South and Southwest Asia. While population data is somewhat unreliable 
  for Afghanistan, Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group at 38-44% of the 
  population, followed by Tajiks (25%), Hazaras (10%), Uzbek (6-8%), Aimaq,   
  Turkmen, Baluch, and other small groups. Dari (Afghan Farsi) and Pashto are 
  official languages. Dari is spoken by more than one-third of the population 
  as a first language and serves as a lingua franca for most Afghans, though  
  Pashto is spoken throughout the Pashtun areas of eastern and southern       
  Afghanistan. Tajik and Turkic languages are spoken widely in the north.     
  Smaller groups throughout the country also speak more than 70 other languages
  and numerous dialects.                                                      
                                                                       
  Afghanistan is an Islamic country. An estimated 80% of the population is    
  Sunni, following the Hanafi school of jurisprudence; the remainder of the   
  population--and primarily the Hazara ethnic group-- predominantly Shi'a.    
  Despite attempts during the years of communist rule to secularize Afghan    
  society, Islamic practices pervade all aspects of life. In fact, Islam served
  as a principal basis for expressing opposition to communism and the Soviet  
  invasion. Islamic religious tradition and codes, together with traditional  
  tribal and ethnic practices, have an important role in personal conduct and 
  dispute settlement. Afghan society is largely based on kinship groups, which
  follow traditional customs and religious practices, though somewhat less so 
  in urban areas.                                                             
                                                                       
  HISTORY                                                                     
  Afghanistan, often called the crossroads of Central Asia, has had a turbulent
  history. In 328 BC, Alexander the Great entered the territory of present-day
  Afghanistan, then part of the Persian Empire, to capture Bactria (present-day
  Balkh). Invasions by the Scythians, White Huns, and Turks followed in       
  succeeding centuries. In AD 642, Arabs invaded the entire region and        
  introduced Islam.                                                           
                                                                       
  Arab rule gave way to the Persians, who controlled the area until conquered 
  by the Turkic Ghaznavids in 998. Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030) consolidated the
  conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazni into a great cultural center
  as well as a base for frequent forays into India. Following Mahmud's        
  short-lived dynasty, various princes attempted to rule sections of the      
  country until the destructive Mongol invasion of 1219 led by Genghis Khan.  
                                                                       
  Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, a succession of petty chiefs and    
  princes struggled for supremacy until late in the 14th century, when one of 
  his descendants, Tamerlane, incorporated Afghanistan into his own vast Asian
  empire. Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and the founder of India's Moghul  
  dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital of an  
  Afghan principality.                                                        
                                                                       
  In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of what is known today as          
  Afghanistan, established his rule. A Pashtun, Durrani was elected king by a 
  tribal council after the assassination of the Persian ruler Nadir Shah at   
  Khabushan in the same year. Throughout his reign, Durrani consolidated      
  chieftainships, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one     
  country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in  
  the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea
  in the south.                                                               
                                                                       
  European Influence                                                          
  During the 19th century, collision between the expanding British Empire in  
  the subcontinent and czarist Russia significantly influenced Afghanistan in 
  what was termed "The Great Game." British concern over Russian advances in  
  Central Asia and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan 
  wars. The first (1839-42) resulted not only in the destruction of a British 
  army, but is remembered today as an example of the ferocity of Afghan       
  resistance to foreign rule. The second Anglo-Afghan war (1878-80) was sparked
  by Amir Sher Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This       
  conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman to the Afghan throne. During his reign   
  (1880-1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries 
  of what would become modern Afghanistan through the demarcation of the Durand
  Line. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs.  
                                                                       
  Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, despite German encouragement
  of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of British  
  India. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular   
  within the country, however.                                                
                                                                       
  Habibullah, Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in 1919,     
  possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son,     
  Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching 
  the third Anglo-Afghan war with an attack on India in the same year. During 
  the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over 
  Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919. In
  commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 19 as their           
  Independence Day.                                                           
                                                                       
  Reform and Reaction                                                         
  King Amanullah (1919-29) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in
  the years following the third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic   
  relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and
  Turkey--during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced 
  by Ataturk--introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan.   
  Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women
  and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many
  tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition,     
  Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces 
  led by Bacha-i-Saqao, a Tajik brigand. Prince Nadir Khan, a cousin of       
  Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and,
  with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King Nadir Shah. Four
  years later, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a Kabul   
  student.                                                                    
                                                                       
  Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne  
  and reigned from 1933 to 1973. In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal
  constitution providing for a two-chamber legislature to which the king      
  appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and  
  the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although   
  Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted
  the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right.  
  These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),
  which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split
  into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction headed by Nur     
  Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin and supported by elements within the    
  military, and the Parcham (Banner) faction led by Babrak Karmal. The split  
  reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society.   
                                                                       
  Zahir's cousin, Sardar Mohammad Daoud, served as his Prime Minister from 1953
  to 1963. During his tenure as Prime Minister, Daoud solicited military and  
  economic assistance from both Washington and Moscow and introduced          
  controversial social policies of a reformist nature. Daoud's alleged support
  for the creation of a Pashtun state in the Pakistan-Afghan border area      
  heightened tensions with Pakistan and eventually resulted in Daoud's        
  dismissal in March 1963.                                                    
                                                                       
  Daoud's Republic (1973-78) and the April 1978 Coup                          
  Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor
  economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime     
  Minister Daoud seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Zahir Shah 
  fled the country, eventually finding refuge in Italy. Daoud abolished the   
  monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a       
  republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts
  to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little       
  success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to    
  quell chronic political instability.                                        
                                                                       
  Seeking to exploit more effectively mounting popular disaffection, the PDPA 
  reunified with Moscow's support. On April 27, 1978, the PDPA initiated a    
  bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of
  his family. Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary General of the PDPA, became      
  President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly      
  established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.                             
                                                                       
  Opposition to the Marxist government emerged almost immediately. During its 
  first 18 months of rule, the PDPA brutally imposed a Marxist-style "reform" 
  program, which ran counter to deeply rooted Afghan traditions. Decrees      
  forcing changes in marriage customs and pushing through an ill-conceived land
  reform were particularly misunderstood by virtually all Afghans. In addition,
  thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, 
  and the intelligentsia were imprisoned, tortured, or murdered. Conflicts    
  within the PDPA also surfaced early and resulted in exiles, purges,         
  imprisonments, and executions.                                              
                                                                       
  By the summer of 1978, a revolt began in the Nuristan region of eastern     
  Afghanistan and quickly spread into a countrywide insurgency. In September  
  1979, Hafizullah Amin, who had earlier been Prime Minister and Minister of  
  Defense, seized power from Taraki after a palace shootout. Over the next 2  
  months, instability plagued Amin's regime as he moved against perceived     
  enemies in the PDPA. By December, party morale was crumbling, and the       
  insurgency was growing.                                                     
                                                                       
  The Soviet Invasion                                                         
  The Soviet Union moved quickly to take advantage of the April 1978 coup. In 
  December 1978, Moscow signed a new bilateral treaty of friendship and       
  cooperation with Afghanistan, and the Soviet military assistance program    
  increased significantly. The regime's survival increasingly was dependent   
  upon Soviet military equipment and advisers as the insurgency spread and the
  Afghan army began to collapse.                                              
                                                                       
  By October 1979, however, relations between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union
  were tense as Hafizullah Amin refused to take Soviet advice on how to       
  stabilize and consolidate his government. Faced with a deteriorating security
  situation, on December 24, 1979, large numbers of Soviet airborne forces,   
  joining thousands of Soviet troops already on the ground, began to land in  
  Kabul under the pretext of a field exercise. On December 26, these invasion 
  forces killed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of 
  the Parcham faction, bringing him back from Czechoslovakia and making him   
  Prime Minister. Massive Soviet ground forces invaded from the north on      
  December 27.                                                                
                                                                       
  Following the invasion, the Karmal regime, although backed by an            
  expeditionary force that grew as large as 120,000 Soviet troops, was unable 
  to establish authority outside Kabul. As much as 80% of the countryside,    
  including parts of Herat and Kandahar, eluded effective government control. 
  An overwhelming majority of Afghans opposed the communist regime, either    
  actively or passively. Afghan freedom fighters (mujahidin) made it almost   
  impossible for the regime to maintain a system of local government outside  
  major urban centers. Poorly armed at first, in 1984 the mujahidin began     
  receiving substantial assistance in the form of weapons and training from the
  U.S. and other outside powers.                                              
                                                                       
  In May 1985, the seven principal Peshawar-based guerrilla organizations     
  formed an alliance to coordinate their political and military operations    
  against the Soviet occupation. Late in 1985, the mujahidin were active in and
  around Kabul, launching rocket attacks and conducting operations against the
  communist government. The failure of the Soviet Union to win over a         
  significant number of Afghan collaborators or to rebuild a viable Afghan army
  forced it to bear an increasing responsibility for fighting the resistance  
  and for civilian administration.                                            
                                                                       
  Soviet and popular displeasure with the Karmal regime led to its demise in  
  May 1986. Karmal was replaced by Muhammad Najibullah, former chief of the   
  Afghan secret police (KHAD). Najibullah had established a reputation for    
  brutal efficiency during his tenure as KHAD chief. As Prime Minister,       
  Najibullah was ineffective and highly dependent on Soviet support. Undercut 
  by deep-seated divisions within the PDPA, regime efforts to broaden its base
  of support proved futile.                                                   
                                                                       
  The Geneva Accords and Their Aftermath                                      
  By the mid-1980s, the tenacious Afghan resistance movement--aided by the    
  United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others--was exacting a high price
  from the Soviets, both militarily within Afghanistan and by souring the     
  U.S.S.R.'s relations with much of the Western and Islamic world. Informal   
  negotiations for a Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan had been underway since
  1982. In 1988, the Governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan, with the United 
  States and Soviet Union serving as guarantors, signed an agreement settling 
  the major differences between them. The agreement, known as the Geneva      
  accords, included five major documents, which, among other things, called for
  U.S. and Soviet noninterference in the internal affairs of Pakistan and     
  Afghanistan, the right of refugees to return to Afghanistan without fear of 
  persecution or harassment, and, most importantly, a timetable that ensured  
  full Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989. About 14,500  
  Soviet and an estimated one million Afghan lives were lost between 1979 and 
  the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.                                              
                                                                       
  Significantly, the mujahidin were party neither to the negotiations nor to  
  the 1988 agreement and, consequently, refused to accept the terms of the    
  accords. As a result, the civil war continued after the Soviet withdrawal,  
  which was completed in February 1989. Najibullah's regime, though failing to
  win popular support, territory, or international recognition, was able to   
  remain in power until 1992 but collapsed after the defection of Gen. Abdul  
  Rashid Dostam and his Uzbek militia in March. However, when the victorious  
  mujahidin entered Kabul to assume control over the city and the central     
  government, a new round of internecine fighting began between the various   
  militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation.   
  With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious,
  and personality differences surfaced, and the civil war continued.          
                                                                       
  Seeking to resolve these differences, the leaders of the Peshawar-based     
  mujahidin groups established an interim Islamic Jihad Council in mid-April  
  1992 to assume power in Kabul. Moderate leader Prof. Sibghatullah Mojaddedi 
  was to chair the council for 2 months, after which a 10-member leadership   
  council composed of mujahidin leaders and presided over by the head of the  
  Jamiat-i-Islami, Prof. Burhanuddin Rabbani, was to be set up for 4 months.  
  During this 6-month period, a Loya Jirga, or grand council of Afghan elders 
  and notables, would convene and designate an interim administration which   
  would hold power up to a year, pending elections.                           
                                                                       
  But in May 1992, Rabbani prematurely formed the leadership council,         
  undermining Mojaddedi's fragile authority. In June, Mojaddedi surrendered   
  power to the Leadership Council, which then elected Rabbani as President.   
  Nonetheless, heavy fighting broke out in August 1992 in Kabul between forces
  loyal to President Rabbani and rival factions, particularly those who       
  supported Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami. After Rabbani extended his   
  tenure in December 1992, fighting in the capital flared up in January and   
  February 1993. The Islamabad Accord, signed in March 1993, which appointed  
  Hekmatyar as Prime Minister, failed to have a lasting effect. A follow-up   
  agreement, the Jalalabad Accord, called for the militias to be disarmed but 
  was never fully implemented. Through 1993, Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami forces,
  allied with the Shi'a Hezb-i-Wahdat militia, clashed intermittently with    
  Rabbani and Masood's Jamiat forces. Cooperating with Jamiat were militants of
  Sayyaf's Ittehad-i-Islami and, periodically, troops loyal to ethnic Uzbek   
  strongman Abdul Rashid Dostam. On January 1, 1994, Dostam switched sides,   
  precipitating large-scale fighting in Kabul and in northern provinces, which
  caused thousands of civilian casualties in Kabul and elsewhere and created a
  new wave of displaced persons and refugees. The country sank even further   
  into anarchy, forces loyal to Rabbani and Masood, both ethnic Tajiks,       
  controlled Kabul and much of the northeast, while local warlords exerted    
  power over the rest of the country.                                         
                                                                       
  Rise and Fall of the Taliban                                                
  The Taliban had risen to power in the mid 90's in reaction to the anarchy and
  warlordism that arose after the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Many Taliban had
  been educated in madrassas in Pakistan and were largely from rural southern 
  Pashtun backgrounds. In 1994, the Taliban developed enough strength to      
  capture the city of Kandahar from a local warlord and proceeded to expand its
  control throughout Afghanistan, occupying Kabul in September 1996. By the end
  of 1998, the Taliban occupied about 90% of the country, limiting the        
  opposition largely to a small mostly Tajik corner in the northeast and the  
  Panjshir valley.                                                            
                                                                       
  The Taliban sought to impose an extreme interpretation of Islam--based upon 
  the rural Pashtun tribal code--on the entire country and committed massive  
  human rights violations, particularly directed against women and girls. The 
  Taliban also committed serious atrocities against minority populations,     
  particularly the Shi'a Hazara ethnic group, and killed noncombatants in     
  several well-documented instances. In 2001, as part of a drive against relics
  of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two Buddha statues 
  carved into cliff faces outside of the city of Bamiyan.                     
                                                                       
  From the mid-1990s the Taliban provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi
  national who had fought with the mujahideen resistance against the Soviets, 
  and provide a base for his and other terrorist organizations. Bin Laden     
  provided both financial and political support to the Taliban. Bin Laden and 
  his Al-Qaida group were charged with the bombing of the U.S. Embassies in   
  Nairobi and Dar Es Salaam in 1998, and in August 1998 the United States     
  launched a cruise missile attack against bin Laden's terrorist camp in      
  southeastern Afghanistan. Bin Laden and Al-Qaida have acknowledged their    
  responsibility for the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the     
  United States.                                                              
                                                                       
  Following the Taliban's repeated refusal to expel bin Laden and his group and
  end its support for international terrorism, the U.S. and its partners in the
  anti-terrorist coalition began a military campaign on October 7, 2001,      
  targeting terrorist facilities and various Taliban military and political   
  assets within Afghanistan. Under pressure from U.S. military and anti-Taliban
  forces, the Taliban disintegrated rapidly, and Kabul fell on November 13,   
  2001.                                                                       
                                                                       
  Afghan factions opposed to the Taliban met at a United Nations-sponsored    
  conference in Bonn, Germany in December 2001 and agreed to restore stability
  and governance to Afghanistan--creating an interim government and           
  establishing a process to move toward a permanent government. Under the "Bonn
  Agreement," an Afghan Interim Authority was formed and took office in Kabul 
  on December 22, 2001 with Hamid Karzai as Chairman. The Interim Authority   
  held power for approximately 6 months while preparing for a nationwide "Loya
  Jirga" (Grand Council) in mid-June 2002 that decided on the structure of a  
  Transitional Authority. The Transitional Authority, headed by President Hamid
  Karzai, renamed the government as the Transitional Islamic State of         
  Afghanistan (TISA). One of the TISA's primary achievements was the drafting 
  of a constitution that was ratified by a Constitutional Loya Jirga on January
  4, 2004.                                                                    
                                                                       
  GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS                                         
  On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan held its first national democratic          
  presidential election. More than 8 million Afghans voted, 41% of whom were  
  women. Hamid Karzai was announced as the official winner on November 3 and  
  inaugurated on December 7 for a five-year term as Afghanistan's first       
  democratically elected president. On December 23, 2004, President Karzai    
  announced new cabinet appointments, naming three women as ministers.        
                                                                       
  An election was held on September 18, 2005 for the "Wolesi Jirga" (lower    
  house) of Afghanistan's new bicameral National Assembly and for the country's
  34 provincial councils. Turnout for the election was about 53% of the 12.5  
  million registered voters. The Afghan constitution provides for indirect    
  election of the National Assembly's "Meshrano Jirga" (upper house) by the   
  provincial councils and by reserved presidential appointments. The first    
  democratically elected National Assembly since 1969 was inaugurated on      
  December 19, 2005. Younus Qanooni and Sigbatullah Mojadeddi were elected    
  Speaker of the Wolesi Jirga and Meshrano Jirga, respectively.               
                                                                       
  The government's authority is growing, although its ability to deliver      
  necessary social services remains largely dependent on funds from the       
  international donor community. Between 2001-2006, the United States committed
  over $12 billion to the reconstruction of Afghanistan. At an international  
  donors' conference in Berlin in April 2004, donors pledged a total of $8.2  
  billion for Afghan reconstruction over the three-year period 2004-2007. At  
  the end of January 2006, the international community gathered in London and 
  renewed its political and reconstruction support for Afghanistan in the form
  of the Afghanistan Compact.                                                 
                                                                       
  With international community support, including more than 40 countries      
  participating in Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO-led International      
  Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the government's capacity to secure       
  Afghanistan's borders to maintain internal order is increasing.             
  Responsibility for security for all of Afghanistan was transferred to ISAF in
  October 2006. As of November 2006, some 40,000 Afghan National Army (ANA)   
  soldiers had been trained along with some 60,000 police, including border and
  highway police.                                                             
                                                                       
  Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) has also helped to     
  further establish the authority of the Afghan central government. The DDR   
  program, after receiving 63,000 military personnel, stopped accepting       
  additional candidates in June 2005. Disarmament and demobilization of all of
  these candidates were completed at the end of June 2006. A follow-on program
  targeting illegal militias, the Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups (DIAG), 
  was begun in 2005, under the joint auspices of Japan and the United Nations.
  The DIAG program is still ongoing.                                          
                                                                       
  Principal Government Officials                                              
  President--Hamid Karzai                                                     
  First Vice President--Ahmad Zia Masood                                      
  Second Vice President--Abdul Karim Khalili                                  
  Minister of Foreign Affairs--Dr. Rangin Dadfar Spanta                       
  Minister of Defense--General Abdul Raheem Wardak                            
  Minister of Interior--Zarar Ahmad Muqbal                                    
  Ambassador to the United States--Said Tayib Jawad                           
                                                                       
  Afghanistan maintains an embassy in the United States at 2341 Wyoming Avenue,
  NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: 202-483-6410; email:                         
  info@embassyofafghanistan.org).                                             
                                                                       
  ECONOMY                                                                     
  In the 1930s, Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program.
  The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a         
  university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent    
  students abroad for education.                                              
                                                                       
  Historically, there has been a dearth of information and reliable statistics
  about Afghanistan's economy. The 1979 Soviet invasion and ensuing civil war 
  destroyed much of the country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal 
  patterns of economic activity. Gross domestic product had fallen            
  substantially because of loss of labor and capital and disruption of trade  
  and transport. Continuing internal strife hampered both domestic efforts at 
  reconstruction as well as international aid efforts. However, Afghanistan's 
  economy has grown at a fast pace since the 2001 fall of the Taliban, albeit 
  from a low base. In 2004, Afghanistan's GDP grew 17%, and in 2005           
  Afghanistan's GDP grew approximately 10%.                                   
                                                                       
  In June 2006, Afghanistan and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a   
  Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program for 2006-2009 that focuses on 
  maintaining macroeconomic stability, boosting growth, and reducing poverty. 
  Afghanistan is also rebuilding its banking infrastructure, through the Da   
  Afghanistan National Bank. Several government-owned banks are also in the   
  process of being privatized.                                                
                                                                       
  Agriculture                                                                 
  The main source of income in the country is agriculture, and during its good
  years, Afghanistan produces enough food and food products to provide for the
  people, as well as to create a surplus for export. The major food crops     
  produced are: corn, rice, barley, wheat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. In   
  Afghanistan, industry is also based on agriculture, and pastoral raw        
  materials. The major industrial crops are: cotton, tobacco, madder, castor  
  beans, and sugar beets. The Afghan economy continues to be overwhelmingly   
  agricultural, despite the fact that only 12% of its total land area is arable
  and less than 6% currently is cultivated. Agricultural production is        
  constrained by an almost total dependence on erratic winter snows and spring
  rains for water; irrigation is primitive. Relatively little use is made of  
  machines, chemical fertilizer, or pesticides.                               
                                                                       
  Overall agricultural production dramatically declined following severe      
  drought as well as sustained fighting, instability in rural areas, and      
  deteriorated infrastructure. The easing of the drought and the end of civil 
  war produced the largest wheat harvest in 25 years during 2003. Wheat       
  production was an estimated 58% higher than in 2002. However, the country   
  still needed to import an estimated one million tons of wheat to meet its   
  requirements for the 2003 year. Millions of Afghans, particularly in rural  
  areas, remained dependent on food aid.                                      
                                                                       
  Opium has become a source of cash for many Afghans, especially following the
  breakdown in central authority after the Soviet withdrawal, and opium-derived
  revenues probably constituted a major source of income for the two main     
  factions during the civil war in the 1990s. Opium is easy to cultivate and  
  transport and offers a quick source of income for impoverished Afghans.     
  Afghanistan produced a record opium poppy crop in 2006, supplying 91% of the
  world's opium. Much of Afghanistan's opium production is refined into heroin
  and is either consumed by a growing regional addict population or exported, 
  primarily to Western Europe.                                                
                                                                       
  Afghanistan has begun counter-narcotics programs, including the promotion of
  alternative livelihoods, public information campaigns, targeted eradication 
  policies, interdiction of drug shipments, as well as law enforcement and    
  justice reform programs. These programs were first implemented in late 2005.
  In June 2006, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that the
  Afghan Government eradicated over 15,000 hectares of opium poppy.           
                                                                       
  Trade and Industry                                                          
  Afghanistan is endowed with natural resources, including extensive deposits 
  of natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur,   
  lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, and precious and semiprecious stones.           
  Unfortunately, ongoing instability in certain areas of the country, remote  
  and rugged terrain, and inadequate infrastructure and transportation network
  have made mining these resources difficult, and there have been few serious 
  attempts to further explore or exploit them.                                
                                                                       
  The most important resource has been natural gas, first tapped in 1967. At  
  their peak during the 1980s, natural gas sales accounted for $300 million a 
  year in export revenues (56% of the total). Ninety percent of these exports 
  went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts. However, during the  
  withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, Afghanistan's natural gas fields were  
  capped to prevent sabotage by the mujahidin. Restoration of gas production  
  has been hampered by internal strife and the disruption of traditional      
  trading relationships following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Trade in  
  smuggled goods into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for 
  Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, and still figures as an important    
  element in the Afghan economy, although efforts are underway to formalize   
  this trade.                                                                 
                                                                       
  Transportation                                                              
  In the 1960s, the United States helped build a highway connecting           
  Afghanistan's two largest cities. It began in Kabul and wound its way through
  five of the country's core provinces—skirting scores of isolated and        
  otherwise inaccessible villages; passing through the ancient market city of 
  Ghazni; descending through Qalat; and eventually reaching Kandahar, founded 
  by Alexander the Great. More than 35% of the country's population lives     
  within 50 kilometers of this highway, called, appropriately, modern         
  Afghanistan's lifeline. In 1978, the Soviet Union invaded. By the time its  
  forces withdrew more than a decade later, more than 1 million Afghans had   
  been killed and 5 million had fled. Civil war followed. The Taliban emerged,
  controlling all but the remote, northern regions. Afghanistan was terrorized
  by this group, which was dogmatically opposed to progress and democracy. More
  than two decades of war had left the Kabul-Kandahar highway devastated, like
  much of the country's infrastructure. Little could move along the lifeline  
  that had provided so many Afghans with their means of livelihood and their  
  access to healthcare, education, markets, and places of worship.            
                                                                       
  Reviving the Road: Restoration of the highway has been an overriding priority
  of President Hamid Karzai. It is crucial to extending the influence of the  
  new government. Without the highway link, Afghanistan's civil society and   
  economy would remain moribund and prey to divisive forces. The economic     
  development that the highway makes possible will help guarantee the unity and
  long-term security of the Afghan people. The restored highway is a visually 
  impressive achievement whose symbolic importance should not be              
  underestimated. It marks a palpable transition from the recent past and     
  represents an important building block for the future. Recently, an official
  in Herat likened the ring road to veins and arteries that nourish and bring 
  life to the "heart" of Kabul and the body of the country. The highway will  
  not end in Kandahar: there are plans to complete the circuit, extending it to
  Herat and then arcing it back through Mazar-e Sharif to Kabul. The route is 
  sometimes referred to as the Ring Road. As of December 2006, three-quarters 
  of the Ring Road had been funded, with plans to be completed in 2007.       
                                                                       
  Landlocked Afghanistan has no functioning railways, but the Amu Darya (Oxus)
  River, which forms part of Afghanistan's border with Turkmenistan,          
  Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, has barge traffic. During their occupation of the
  country, the Soviets completed a bridge across the Amu Darya. The United    
  States, in partnership with Norway, has agreed to reconstruct this bridge,  
  which will stretch more than 650 meters over the Amu Darya/Pyandzh River    
  between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, near Pyanji Poyon (Tajikistan) and Shir 
  Khan Bandar (Afghanistan). The bridge is set for completion in 2007.        
                                                                       
  Afghanistan's national airline, Ariana, operates domestic and international 
  routes, including flights to New Delhi, Islamabad, Dubai, Moscow, Istanbul, 
  Tehran, and Frankfurt. A private carrier, Kam Air, commenced domestic       
  operations in November 2003. Many sections of Afghanistan's highway and     
  regional road system are undergoing significant reconstruction. The U.S.    
  (with assistance from Japan) completed building a highway linking Kabul to  
  the southern regional capital, Kandahar. Construction is soon to begin on the
  next phase of highway reconstruction between Kandahar and the western city of
  Herat. The Asian Development Bank is also active in road development        
  projects, mainly in the border areas with Pakistan.                         
                                                                       
  Humanitarian Relief                                                         
  Many nations have assisted in a great variety of humanitarian and development
  projects all across Afghanistan since the fall of the Taliban in 2001. The  
  United Nations, World Bank, Asian Development Bank and other international  
  agencies have also given aid. Schools, clinics, water systems, agriculture, 
  sanitation, government buildings and roads are being repaired or built.     
                                                                       
  De-mining                                                                   
  Afghanistan is one of the most heavily mined countries in the world;        
  mine-related injuries number up to 100 per month, and an estimated 200,000  
  Afghans have been disabled by landmine/unexploded ordinances (UXO) accidents.
  As of March 2005 the United Nations Mine Action Program for Afghanistan had 
  approximately 8,000 Afghan personnel, 700 demobilized soldiers, 22          
  international staff, and several NGOs deployed in Afghanistan. The goal of  
  the program is to remove the impact of mines from all high-impact areas by  
  2007 and to make Afghanistan mine-free by 2012. Between January 2003 and    
  March 2005 a total of 2,354,244 mines and pieces of UXOs were destroyed.    
  Training programs are also being used to educate the public about the threat
  and dangers of land mines. The number of mine victims was reduced from      
  approximately 150 a month in 2002 to less than 100 a month in 2004.         
                                                                       
  Refugees and Internally Displaced People                                    
  Afghanistan has had the largest refugee repatriation in the world in the last
  30 years. The return of refugees is guided by the Ministry of Refugees and  
  Repatriation (MORR) and supported by the United Nations High Commissioner for
  Refugees (UNHCR), International Organization of Migration (IOM), United     
  Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Program (WFP), the World   
  Health Organization (WHO) and a number of other national and international  
  NGOs. As of December 2006, approximately 3 million Afghans remained in      
  neighboring countries. The U.S. provided more than $350 million to support  
  Afghan refugees, returnees, and other conflict victims between September 2001
  and March 2006.                                                             
                                                                       
  Health                                                                      
  In response to a strategy outlined by the Ministry of Health, the           
  international community is supporting the government in rebuilding the      
  primary health-care system. Tuberculosis remains a serious public health    
  problem in Afghanistan. Since this strategy was outlined, the Afghan        
  Government with support from the World Health Organization (WHO) has        
  established 162 health facilities in 141 districts across the country. The  
  treatment success rate in 2002 was 86%. WHO is also assisting the Ministry of
  Health and local health authorities to combat malaria where the disease is  
  widespread. Through this project, 600,000 individuals are receiving full    
  treatment for malaria every year. In addition 750,000 individuals are       
  protected from malaria by sleeping under special nets provided under the    
  project.                                                                    
                                                                       
  Education                                                                   
  There were 45,000 children enrolled in school in 1993, 19% were girls. The  
  latest official statistics show there are now 64,000 children in school, one
  third are girls. In addition 29% of the teachers in the province are women, 
  compared with 15% in 1993. Effort is being made to ensure that teachers     
  receive salaries on time and increasing the attendance of girls in school.  
  The total enrollment rate for Afghan children between 7 and 13 years of age 
  has increased to 54% (67% for boys and 37% for girls). A number of factors  
  such as distance to schools, poor facilities and lack of separate schooling 
  for boys and girls continue to be challenges to higher enrollment.          
                                                                       
  FOREIGN RELATIONS                                                           
  Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and  
  nonalignment in its foreign relations. After the December 1979 invasion,    
  Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Most Western
  countries, including the United States, maintained small diplomatic missions
  in Kabul during the Soviet occupation. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy   
  Afghanistan's seat at the UN and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
  were unsuccessful.                                                          
                                                                       
  The fall of the Taliban in October 2001 opened a new chapter in Afghanistan's
  foreign relations. Afghanistan is now an active member of the international 
  community, and has diplomatic relations with countries from around the world.
  In December 2002, the six nations that border Afghanistan signed a 'Good    
  Neighbor' Declaration, in which they pledged to respect Afghanistan's       
  independence and territorial integrity. In 2005 Afghanistan and its South   
  Asia neighbors held the first annual Regional Economic Cooperation Conference
  (RECC) promoting intra-regional relations and economic cooperation.         
                                                                       
  Pakistan                                                                    
  The 1978 Marxist coup strained relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan.  
  Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned
  Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the    
  Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan   
  served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan
  initially developed close ties to the Taliban regime, and extended          
  recognition in 1997. Pakistan dramatically altered its policy after September
  11, 2001 by closing its border and downgrading its ties. Afghanistan and    
  Pakistan are engaged in dialogue to resolve these bilateral issues.         
                                                                       
  Iran                                                                        
  Afghanistan's relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with      
  periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main    
  issue of contention. Following the Soviet invasion, which Iran opposed,     
  relations deteriorated. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and
  provided financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged     
  loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Iran still provides    
  refuge to Afghan ex-patriots. Following the emergence of the Taliban and    
  their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up      
  assistance to the Northern Alliance. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated
  further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in        
  Mazar-e-Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats. Since the fall of the Taliban,
  Afghanistan's relations with Iran have improved. Iran has been active in    
  Afghan reconstruction efforts, particularly in the western portion of the   
  country.                                                                    
                                                                       
  Russia                                                                      
  During the reign of the Taliban, Russia became increasingly disenchanted over
  Taliban support for Chechen rebels and for providing a sanctuary for        
  terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself, and therefore 
  provided military assistance to the Northern Alliance. Since the fall of the
  Taliban, the Karzai government has improved relations with Russia, but      
  Afghanistan's outstanding foreign debt to Russia still continues to be a    
  source of contention.                                                       
                                                                       
  Tajikistan                                                                  
  Afghanistan's relations with Tajikistan have been complicated by political  
  upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to  
  seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Also disenchanted by
  the Taliban's harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Tajik minority, Tajikistan   
  facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. The Karzai government has  
  sought to establish closer ties with its northern neighbor in order to      
  capitalize on the potential economic benefits of increased trade.           
                                                                       
  UN Efforts                                                                  
  The United Nations was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet        
  withdrawal under the terms of the 1988 Geneva Accords. In the aftermath of  
  the Accords, the United Nations assisted in the repatriation of refugees and
  provided humanitarian aid such as food, health care, educational programs,  
  and support for mine-clearing operations. From 1990-2001, the UN worked to  
  promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide
  humanitarian aid. Since October 2001, the UN has played a key role in       
  Afghanistan through the UN Assistance Mission to Afghanistan (UNAMA),       
  including spearheading efforts to organize the Afghan presidential elections
  held in October 2004 and National Assembly elections held in 2005.          
                                                                       
  U.S.-AFGHAN RELATIONS                                                       
  The first extensive American contact with Afghanistan was made by Josiah    
  Harlan, an adventurer from Pennsylvania who was an adviser in Afghan politics
  in the 1830s and reputedly inspired Rudyard Kipling's story "The Man Who    
  Would be King." After the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1934, the
  U.S. policy of helping developing nations raise their standard of living was
  an important factor in maintaining and improving U.S.-Afghan ties. From 1950
  to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500   
  million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop   
  transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the     
  educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government              
  administration.                                                             
                                                                       
  In the 1950s, the U.S. declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation
  but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of   
  Afghanistan's physical infrastructure--roads, dams, and power plants. Later,
  U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance       
  programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. The   
  Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979.                
                                                                       
  After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S.   
  Ambassador Adolph "Spike" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security  
  forces burst in on his kidnapers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance
  and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance  
  agreements were ended after the December 1979 Soviet invasion.              
                                                                       
  Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts
  to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. U.S. contributions to the refugee program in
  Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. This     
  cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed to increase Afghan       
  self-sufficiency and help Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians 
  out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet         
  occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and
  economic assistance to Afghans and the resistance movement.                 
                                                                       
  The U.S. supports the emergence of a broad-based government, representative 
  of all Afghans and actively encourages a UN role in the national            
  reconciliation process in Afghanistan. Today, the U.S. is assisting the     
  Afghan people as they rebuild their country and establish a representative  
  government that contributes to regional stability, is market friendly, and  
  respects human rights. In May 2005, President Bush and President Karzai     
  concluded a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a    
  long-term relationship.                                                     
                                                                       
  Principal U.S. Official                                                     
  Ambassador--William Braucher Wood                                           
                                                                       
  The U.S. Embassy in Afghanistan is at the Great Masoud Road, Kabul (tel: (00
  93) (20) 230-0436; fax: (00 93) (20) 230-1364).                             
                                                                       
  TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION                                             
  The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program advises Americans
  traveling and residing abroad through Consular Information Sheets, Public   
  Announcements, and Travel Warnings. Consular Information Sheets exist for all
  countries and include information on entry and exit requirements, currency  
  regulations, health conditions, safety and security, crime, political       
  disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. embassies and consulates abroad.
  Public Announcements are issued to disseminate information quickly about    
  terrorist threats and other relatively short-term conditions overseas that  
  pose significant risks to the security of American travelers. Travel Warnings
  are issued when the State Department recommends that Americans avoid travel 
  to a certain country because the situation is dangerous or unstable.        
                                                                       
  For the latest security information, Americans living and traveling abroad  
  should regularly monitor the Department's Bureau of Consular Affairs Internet
  web site at http://www.travel.state.gov, where the current Worldwide Caution,
  Public Announcements, and Travel Warnings can be found. Consular Affairs    
  Publications, which contain information on obtaining passports and planning a
  safe trip abroad, are also available at http://www.travel.state.gov. For    
  additional information on international travel, see http://www.usa.gov/     
  Citizen/Topics/Travel/International.shtml.                                  
                                                                       
  The Department of State encourages all U.S citizens who traveling or residing
  abroad to register via the State Department's travel registration website or
  at the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate abroad. Registration will make your
  presence and whereabouts known in case it is necessary to contact you in an 
  emergency and will enable you to receive up-to-date information on security 
  conditions.                                                                 
                                                                       
  Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may be obtained 
  by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada or the regular   
  toll line 1-202-501-4444 for callers outside the U.S. and Canada.           
                                                                       
  The National Passport Information Center (NPIC) is the U.S. Department of   
  State's single, centralized public contact center for U.S. passport         
  information. Telephone: 1-877-4USA-PPT (1-877-487-2778). Customer service   
  representatives and operators for TDD/TTY are available Monday-Friday, 7:00 
  a.m. to 12:00 midnight, Eastern Time, excluding federal holidays.           
                                                                       
  Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S. Centers for 
  Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. A hotline at 877-FYI-TRIP
  (877-394-8747) and a web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/index.htm give the
  most recent health advisories, immunization recommendations or requirements,
  and advice on food and drinking water safety for regions and countries. A   
  booklet entitled "Health Information for International Travel" (HHS         
  publication number CDC-95-8280) is available from the U.S. Government       
  Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, tel. (202) 512-1800.                 
                                                                       
  Further Electronic Information                                              
  Department of State Web Site. Available on the Internet at http://          
  www.state.gov, the Department of State web site provides timely, global     
  access to official U.S. foreign policy information, including Background    
  Notes and daily press briefings along with the directory of key officers of 
  Foreign Service posts and more. The Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC)
  provides security information and regional news that impact U.S. companies  
  working abroad through its website http://www.osac.gov                      
                                                                       
  Export.gov provides a portal to all export-related assistance and market    
  information offered by the federal government and provides trade leads, free
  export counseling, help with the export process, and more.                  
  STAT-USA/Internet, a service of the U.S. Department of Commerce, provides   
  authoritative economic, business, and international trade information from  
  the Federal government. The site includes current and historical            
  trade-related releases, international market research, trade opportunities, 
  and country analysis and provides access to the National Trade Data Bank.   

 

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